戰(zhàn)略與企業(yè)家綜合概述(英文版)(編輯修改稿)

　

【文章內(nèi)容簡(jiǎn)介】 . Similarly, human aspirations may range from career goals and individual prosperity to freedom and justice and the good life for all and peace on earth. These aspirations have to be transformed into demand functions and markets for specific economic artifacts such as particular goods, services and firms. Entrepreneurship consists in matching up the products of human imagination with human aspirations to create markets for goods and services that did not exist before the entrepreneurial act. In fact, most entrepreneurial opportunities, be they supply based or demand based, do not originate in the economic domain at all. For example, the internet was developed as a way to facilitate munication between defense scientists and remained out of the economic domain for several years. The mere existence of the internet did not guarantee the development of emerce. Rather, this artifact created to solve a political problem (namely, defense), had to be transformed through several intentional and unintentional activities to bee a universe of entrepreneurial opportunities in the economic domain. To cite another example, entrepreneurs such as Robert Lucas transform literary and artistic endeavors into the Star Wars marketing empire by matching up creations of the human imagination with human aspirations such as the desire to participate in the triumph of good over evil. That is why if we are to understand entrepreneurial opportunities, we have to delve into the preconditions for their existence ., the preconditions for the existence of demand and supply binations that constitute entrepreneurial opportunities. This leads us to a simple typology of entrepreneurial actions in relation to opportunities as follows: 1. Opportunity RecognitionIf both sources of supply and demand exist rather obviously, the opportunity for bringing them together has to be recognized and then the matchup between supply and demand has to be implemented either through an existing firm or a new firm. Examples include arbitrage and franchises. For example, through its first successful coffee shop, Starbucks proved the existence of a demand for specialty coffees as also a viable and effective way to satisfy that demand. Thereafter, each Starbucks franchisee only has to recognize potential geographic locations for extending that demand and supply bination. They do not have to invent sources of supply, or induce demand for a pletely new product.2. Opportunity DiscoveryIf only one side exists in an obvious manner and the other side either does not exist or is so latent as to be virtually nonexistent for most people ., demand exists, but supply does not, and vice versa then, the nonexistent side has to be discovered before the matchup can be implemented. In other words, when demand exists。 supply has to be discovered. An example of this is Ron Popeil and his inventions for more convenient and health conscious kitchen devices. On the other side of the coin, supply might exist。 then demand has to be discovered. The history of technology entrepreneurship is strewn with solutions in search of problems. Xerox had the technology for the Macintosh puter, but it took Jobs and Wozniak to discover and exploit its potential demand.3. Opportunity CreationIf neither supply nor demand exist in an obvious manner, one or both have to be created, and several economic inventions in marketing, financing, management etc. have to be made, for the opportunity to e into existence. Examples include Wedgwood Pottery, Edison39。s General Electric, UHaul, AES Corporation, Netscape, Beanie Babies, and the MIR space resort.Historically, opportunities have been supposed to exist and the entrepreneur either is alert to them (Kirzner, 1979) or somehow goes about discovering them (Hayek, 1945 and Schumpeter, 1976). But the idea we will explore in this chapter is that entrepreneurial opportunities often have to be created by using the entrepreneurial imagination to embody human aspirations in concrete products and markets.THE CREATIVE ENTREPRENEURIAL ASPECTS OFFUNDAMENTAL ISSUES IN STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT1. Firm Behavior Emphasizing the creativity of human actionHow do firms behave? Or, do firms really behave like rational actors, and, if not, what models of their behavior should be used by researchers and policy makers?Rational ActionEconomics has long rested on foundations of rational action。 and it has long been criticized for it. For example, studies have shown that that there are severe limits lack of knowledge, putational ability, and ability to consider more than a few factors simultaneously that place an upper bound on human objective rationality (Simon, 1959。 Payne, Bettman amp。 Johnson, 1993。 BarHillel, 1980。 Tversky amp。 Kahneman, 1982). Although this does not imply that decision makers are irrational, it shows that they must usually use heuristics and approximate inductive logics that nevertheless often lead to very effective decisions (Gigerenzer, Hell amp。 Blank, 1988). They seldom have the luxury of behaving like utility maximizers. But most criticisms of the rational foundations of economics attack and try to relax assumptions of rationality rather than provide an overarching alternative framework. In 1991, however, Buchanan and Vanberg called for more drastic measures, particularly for our understanding of entrepreneurship (Buchanan amp。 Vanberg, 1991). In that paper, they argue for the usefulness of a perceptual construct of the market as a creative process, rather than as a discovery process, or the more familiar allocative process. Their arguments are based on a fundamental assumption of the future that is not merely unknown, but essentially unknowable. Only speculations and conjectures are possible about the future because the future is created by the choices that human beings make: “Entrepreneurial activity, in particular, is not to be modeled as discovery of